Historicising the French Revolution. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars. ISBN 978-1-4438-1157-6. ^ Kappeler, Andreas (27 August 2014). The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. ISBN 978-1-317-56810-0 – via Google Books. ^ Lucassen, Leo; Feldman, David; Oltmer, Jochen (6 September 2006). Paths of Integration: Migrants in Western Europe (1880–2004). Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-5356-883-5 – via Google Books. ^ Restivo, Sal (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. p. 613. ISBN 1280835133.
[368][369] Foreign artisans often came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in the Baroque, Neoclassical and Revivalist styles (17th–19th century). [370] Primary building materials comprising timber or red brick were extensively utilised in Polish folk architecture, [371] and the concept of a fortified church was commonplace. [372] Secular structures such as dworek manor houses, farmsteads, granaries, mills and country inns are still present in some regions or in open air museums (skansen). [373] However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction of functionalist housing estates and residential areas.
Etymology The native Polish name for Poland is Polska. [12] The name is derived from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe who inhabited the Warta River basin of present-day Greater Poland region (6th–8th century CE). [13] The tribe's name stems from the Proto-Slavic noun pole meaning field, which in-itself originates from the Proto-Indo-European word *pleh₂- indicating flatland.
[344] Holidays and traditions All Saints' Day on 1 November is one of the most important public holidays in Poland. There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January, Three Kings' Day on 6 January, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday, Labour Day on 1 May, Constitution Day on 3 May, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, All Saints' Day on 1 November, Independence Day on 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December. [345] Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (Wigilia) is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year. Trees are decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus' manger, Christmas wafers (opłatek) are shared between gathered guests and a twelve-dish meatless supper is served that same evening when the first star appears.
^ Koryś, Piotr (2018). Poland From Partitions to EU Accession: A Modern Economic History, 1772–2004. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-97126-1. ^ According to Margaret MacMillan, "The rebirth of Poland was one of the great stories of the Paris Peace Conference. " Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months that Changed the World (2001), p. 208. ^ Curtis, Glenn E. (1994). Poland: A Country Study. Vol. 550 (3 ed. Washington, D. C.
On 28 September 1939, Warsaw fell. As agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war (inter alia Katyn massacre) ahead of the Operation Barbarossa. [120] German planners had in November 1939 called for "the complete destruction of all Poles" and their fate as outlined in the genocidal Generalplan Ost. [121] Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe, [122][123][124] and its troops served both the Polish Government in Exile in the west and Soviet leadership in the east.
[69] The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish General Sejm in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal Polish nobles. [70] The 16th century saw Protestant Reformation movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time. [71] This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil and wars of religion that beset Europe.
[331][332] Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians. [332] Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum) or various vocational studies (szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by each individual pupil. [332] A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning.
: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-844-40827-9. ^ Wandycz, Piotr S. (2009). "The Second Republic, 1921-1939". The Polish Review. University of Illinois Press. 54 (2): 159–171. JSTOR 25779809. ^ Kukiel, Marjan (1929). "The Polish-Soviet Campaign of 1920". The Slavonic and East European Review. Modern Humanities Research Association. 8 (22): 48–65.
[199] There are 123 areas designated as landscape parks, along with numerous nature reserves and other protected areas under the Natura 2000 network. [200] Government and politics Poland is a unitary parliamentary republic and a representative democracy, with a president as the head of state. [201] The executive power is exercised further by the Council of Ministers and the prime minister who acts as the head of government.
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